In this study an attempt has been made to accomplish the following objectives:

• To assess the labour input of female academic and non-academic staff in Nigerian universities,

• To identify and examine the institutional factors which affect female staff in the university system and the implications on their job performance,

• To review strategies for enhancing the labour input of females in Nigerian universities.

The survey research design method was adopted for this study. Female staff in Nigerian universities constituted the population for this study. Data for the study were generated from both primary and secondary sources. Primary data were solicited through the use of structured questionnaires and in-depth interviews, while secondary data were obtained from journals, textbooks, the internet, official government publications and other relevant literature.

Federal universities located in the six geo-political zones of Nigeria were used for the study. The main feature which justified the choice of federal universities is the fact that they are older, well established and have more physical facilities and a wider range of disciplines. To ensure that the universities in all zones had an equal chance of being included in the sample, the purposive random sampling technique was used in selecting two universities from each zone, bringing the total number of universities used to twelve.

A homogeneous group consisting of females in Nigerian universities whose ages ranged from 21 years to the retirement age of 60 years for non-academic staff and 65 years for academic staff constituted the population for the study. In order to compare the labour input of females across the various job categories and to also determine the institutional factors which affect their performance in Nigerian universities, the stratified sampling technique was used in administering questionnaires on 730 females grouped into 381 academic, 225 administrative and 124 technical staff respectively. This was done to ensure that women were represented amongst the rank and file of the university labour force.

The samples were obtained from six randomly selected faculties of the universities, cutting across the social sciences, education, arts, science, engineering and medicine. The questionnaire was made up of 34 items divided into three sections. The first section solicited personal and demographic information from the respondents. The second section enabled the researcher to elicit the various experiences and contributions of females to teaching, research, technical services and administration. The third section was structured to provide information on the institutional factors which affect their labour input in the university system. The validation of the questionnaire was carried out by experts in measurement and evaluation, while the reliability was established through a pilot test. Thereafter, the instrument was first administered on the sampled subjects. In addition to the questionnaire, in-depth interviews were carried out with 120 purposively selected female university staff occupying key academic and administrative decision-making positions in the selected universities used for the study. They were selected because their position in the universities predisposed them to provide useful information for the study. The in-depth interview provided greater insights into the implications of the identified practices and policies on females and their job performance.

Data collected were subjected to statistical treatment using descriptive statistical analysis, while the qualitative approach was used in analyzing the data gathered from the interview sessions. Recommendations on the best strategies to adopt in engendering Nigerian universities to be more gender responsive were drawn from accounts in published materials.

The female respondents used for this study cut across the three major job categories in Nigerian universities. The female administrative staff respondents constituted 30.8 percent of the total sample, the academic staff accounted for 52.2 percent while 17 percent of the respondents constituted the technical staff category.

The majority (83.0 percent) of the respondents were married, while 11.20 percent were single. The widowed accounted for 5.1 percent of the total sample, while the divorced (0.4 percent) and the separated (0.3 percent) were of quite an insignificant value. It is significant to note that the majority of the sample were married. This implies that in Nigeria women are able to combine work outside the family with their familial responsibilities (Aina, 1996).

Data on the educational status of the sample revealed that 33.9 percent of the administrative staff possessed bachelors degrees, 12.0 percent claimed they had diplomas, while 4.4 percent possessed professional certificates. The fact that the majority of the administrative staff possessed bachelors degrees indicates that Nigerian universities employ staff with adequate entry qualifications. Further enquiries on educational qualifications revealed that 48.1 percent of the academic staff possessed doctoral degrees, while 41.9 percent had master's degrees. This data supports the fact that the acquisition of a doctoral degree is a prerequisite for entry and growth in academia. Most of the technical staff (43.7 percent) possessed higher national diplomas, while 26.6 percent possessed bachelors degrees.

Generally, the results show that all the three categories of female staff in Nigerian universities possess the relevant prerequisite qualifications for the jobs they perform.

In the universities, just as in most other organizations, specific functions are assigned to each member and category of staff in order to realize the basic goals and objectives of such organizations. Teaching, research and service are the three historic purposes of universities around the world (Cummings, 1998). In addition to these, the university has an array of staff that perform administrative and technical functions in order to complement the teaching and research aspects of the university functions.

Table 1 shows the contributions of female staff to teaching, research, technical services and administration in Nigerian universities. Figures on the Table 1 provide information on how much administrative, academic and female technical staff contribute to these various job schedules.

Figures in Table 1 indicate that 95.1 percent of the female administrative staff sampled performed more of administrative job schedules than teaching services (4.9 percent). Although the female administrative staff are strictly administrators, a few of them who occupy executive positions in the system are called upon to teach and deliver lectures in workshops and seminars organized for both staff and students. A further enquiry about the type of administrative job schedules performed by females as revealed from the comments of the interviewees was that women hardly chaired committees. Rather they attended to files, drafted and responded to official letters and performed routine duties that were mainly supervisory and secretarial in nature. The interviewees attributed the disproportionate trend in the contribution of females to top management job schedules in the universities to the existence of a glass ceiling in the system and in the belief that only men make good decisions.

Data in Table I further show that the majority (71.9 percent) of the female academic staff engaged in teaching than research (27.6 percent) activities, while 0.5 percent of them performed administrative jobs. This is disturbing because promotion for academic staff is based on contributions to research and publications, while contributions to administration and teaching are not perceived to have equal weight and go unrewarded. The use of this criterion affects women adversely because they publish less and devote more time to teaching. This is evident from the comments of the interviewees who noted that the majority of the female academics were only able to publish a paper annually, while a few published up to two. Others were unable to publish on an annual basis, but ensured that they taught their courses effectively. They added that the few women amongst them who are intellectually aggressive were regarded as deviants by their male colleagues. They opined that though the use of publication criteria is quantifiable, it is not particularly appropriate for rewarding achievement in an education environment, rather teaching effectiveness is a better one even if more difficult to measure.

Results in Table 1 further reveal that a higher percentage (83.0 percent) of the female technical staff provided technical services, 4.0 percent engaged in teaching, while 12.9 percent participated in research activities. A further insight was provided by the females interviewed on other job schedules performed by female technical staff. They noted that they were more involved in setting up materials for experiments during science classes and utilized the opportunity to teach and demonstrate to the students the best methods of using the materials. They however expressed dissatisfaction with being marginalized by their male colleagues from participating in services which involve the management, repairs, maintenance and purchase of laboratory equipment.

Generally, results in Table I show that female staff in the three major job categories in Nigerian universities sometimes perform jobs that overlap. This goes to confirm the fact that both the administrative and technical staff perform duties that complement those of their academic colleagues and together they enhance a balanced operation of the university system (Okebukola, 2002).

Institutional barriers are factors that are embedded in or stem from the formal procedures, culture and rules of universities. These procedures include recruitment and job assignment practices, promotion systems, administrative regulations, policies regarding gender issues, work environment, organizational structure, stipulations regarding training programmes and provision of research grants. Institutional cultures denote those norms, values, practices, beliefs and assumptions that direct the behaviour and performance of staff (Ogbogu, 2006). An examination is made of how these institutionalized mechanisms affect the labour input of females and their advancement in the Nigerian university system in Tables 2 and 3.

Table 2 shows the responses of female non-academic staff (administrative and technical category) on the institutional factors which affect their labour input in Nigerian universities. Results in the Table 2 show that inadequate working facilities was the major factor which impacted on the labour input of both the administrative (83.6 percent) and the technical (89.5 percent) staff. Female staff cannot maximize their potentials nor increase productivity when there are inadequate facilities to work with. In Nigeria and in most Third World countries, available input elements in the universities are inadequate and overstretched due to unavailability of funds for maintenance and provision of modern ones. This accounts for the slow rate at which women progress through the ranks. Working facilities in Nigerian universities require improvement in order to empower women to cope with the new job demands and massification of university education in the 21^st century.

Data in Table 2 indicates that 89.5 percent of the technical staff specified that delay in promotion was a major obstacle to their growth on the job. The female technical staff interviewed in this regard commented that they found it difficult to develop a positive self image, because they are excluded from the informal communication and support opportunity among men. This, according to them, is like an old and exclusive men's club. Universities need to redesign their promotion policies to reward performance in technical job schedules as it affects women. The female administrative staff who indicated that their promotion was delayed was 68.9 percent. Although promotions seems to be more rapid for administrative staff at the lowest rung of their career ladder, it is difficult for them to be promoted beyond the present Principal Assistant Registrar Position, which is equivalent to a Senior Lecturer's grade. This is because academic departments can have some multiple Professors, but there is only one appointable Registrar in administration, with two Senior Deputy Registrars and a few Deputy Registrars. Competent administrators may be left marking time for years if there is no vacancy at the top.

Both the administrative (72.4 percent) and the technical (79.8 percent) staff indicated that poor salaries and incentives were major factors which affected their labour input in the universities. This has led to high turnover of female staff from the university system, because they feel insecure, uncertain, frustrated and unable to meet the skyrocketing inflationary prices of goods and services.

The administrative staff who indicated that lack of adequate childcare facilities for nursing mothers and overcrowded work schedules accounted for their low labour input was both 57.8 percent. It is interesting to note that both variables affected the female administrative staff on an equal basis, than they did for the technical staff. These results corroborate Ball's (2003) assertion that women work hard to maintain a balance between work and family, but receive little support for it. In addition, due to the competitiveness and globalization of the market of higher education, there currently exists the "performative" culture in universities characterized by unremitting diet of 'targets, indicators, evaluation and dead lines' that mount much pressure on female workers. There are neither corresponding supportive structures nor policies in universities that can help women cope with the rapid changes and demands in the work system (Macfarlane, 2007).

Table 3 shows the responses of the female academic staff on the institutional factors which affect their labour input. Results in the Table reveal that the majority (76.6% percent) of the respondents reported overcrowded work schedule as a major factor which hinders their input. The interviewees attributed this to limited funding of universities in Nigeria. Universities have therefore become business oriented as they chase alternatives to government funding. Under such circumstances talented female academics find that promotion to the top level becomes increasingly difficult as teaching loads increase and leaves little time for study and research which is the yardstick for promotion.

Further results on Table 3 reveal that 72.0 percent of the respondents indicated that insufficient provision of grants by universities for female academics affected their labour input. The female interviewees specifically emphasized the fact that grants for scholarly work and travels for international conferences are not readily available to enable female academics improve on their research output. Funding is a prerequisite for effective research and a major variable for professional development if made available to females.

The respondents who indicated that poor salaries and incentives affected their input were 70.3 percent. The salaries and general conditions of service in Nigerian universities are uninspiring and unmotivating, while the attainment of the basic necessities of life has gradually become a mirage for the dedicated academic. An interviewee added that the existing despondency and lack of university's support can obliterate the committed university academic.

Other institutional factors which affect females as shown in the Table 3 include: lack of gender/friendly policies (69.0 percent), delayed promotion (65.6 percent), inadequate research and teaching facilities (64.8 percent), lack of adequate childcare facilities for nursing mothers (57.5 percent) and promotion criteria (56.7 percent). Much remains to be done in Nigerian universities regarding the promulgation of gender friendly policies necessary for promoting and developing women in academia. Poole (2005) in support of this view, affirmed that women can only maximize their potentials and make progress on the job if they are encouraged through gender-friendly policies. Promotion procedure which requires the completion of a doctorate, publications, along with academically-oriented process of evaluation act as barriers for women as evident in the responses provided in Table 3. These processes take a lengthy period of time. For instance, scholarly publications as well as achievement of prominence in scholarly societies is built up over time. Although women are capable of conforming to organizational requirements, many have strong commitments to their familial roles and are unable to devote as much time as men to research. It is significant to note that despite the fact that universities include service and teaching as part of their promotion criteria, lip service is paid to them. Responses from the interviewees on promotion issues revealed that service activities and teaching go unnoticed and unrewarded. They are underneath and are not perceived to have equal weight with research and publications. They advocated that Nigerian universities should redesign their promotion and tenure policies to reward performance in teaching and service, because these two job aspects are no less valuable, although they are perceived as more difficult to measure and evaluate.

There is need to challenge some of the university's culture, such that women would be allowed to enjoy a sensible work and home-life balance, if their productivity is to be maintained. Universities should eradicate norms that systematically disadvantage women by creating a work environment which respects and allows them to thrive without demanding that they become like men. A major challenge therefore is to proactively address institutional culture, policies, practices and workplace behaviours in order to empower women and increase their output. It should be realized that policies without corresponding changes in culture and practice have limited impact.