Digital Divide and Life Satisfaction among Married Immigrant Women in Korea

Introduction

Multiculturalism has accelerated the inflow of married immigrants, and foreign workers in the Korean society. The total number of married immigrant women increased from 87, 964 in 2007 to 160, 653 in 2017 (Statistics Korea, 2018). The transition to a multicultural society is an inevitable phenomenon, and an increase in the number of married immigrants could cause new social challenges. Data from the National Survey of Multicultural Families show that 85% of married immigrants, and naturalized citizens have been experiencing difficulties in their new lives in Korea (Ministry of Gender Equality and Family, 2016). The government has implemented various multicultural policies to help married immigrant women settle comfortably in Korean society. Many married immigrant women continue to encounter cultural differences, language problems, economic difficulties, and conflicts, especially concerning family and childcare. Such difficulties and conflicts can reduce satisfaction, and quality of life.

The life satisfaction of married immigrant women is closely related to their social adaptation, and social integration. Previous research on married immigrant women’s life satisfaction generally focused on their Korean language skills, social and cultural adaptation, child-rearing practices, and marital relationships. This study focuses on the digital divide of married immigrant women, and its effects on their life satisfaction. The Digital Divide Survey shows that the digital informatization level of married immigrant women has been improving year on year. However, it is still lower than that of the overall society (National Information Society Agency, 2018). Differences in access to, and use of, digital technology between married immigrant women and the society could lead to the expansion and reproduction of several social structural inequalities (Helsper, 2012; Schiller, 1996; van Dijk, 2005). Inequality caused by the digital divide not only limits the socio-economic participation and opportunities of married immigrant women, but also negatively affects their individual life satisfaction (Williams & Mohammed, 2009).

The digital divide observed among married immigrant women can be attributed to various factors. Some scholars have emphasized that differences in Internet access and skills mainly depend on individuals’ demographic and socio-economic levels (Hargittai & Hinnant, 2008; van Deursen & van Dijk, 2019; Zillien & Hargittai, 2009). As the debate regarding Internet usage and the digital divide continues, interest in the psychological motivations of Internet users have increased (Kalmus, Realo, & Siibak, 2011; van Deursen & van Dijk, 2014). This is because there is a difference in the level of qualitative use of digital technology as per the purpose and motivation of the users. Social support should be also emphasized because of the characteristics of married immigrant women (Helsper & van Deursen, 2017). Family support can have a positive effect on the life satisfaction of married immigrant women by facilitating the use of mobile Internet, and promoting social and cultural adaptation. Analyzing the factors related to life satisfaction is important to understand how they take advantage of the opportunities afforded by the mobile Internet.

In this context, the purposes of this study are to examine the following research questions:

• RQ 1: How do married immigrants’ attitudes toward mobile Internet and family support for married immigrants’ mobile Internet use relate to the mobile Internet access (first-level digital divide) and mobile Internet skills and usage (second-level digital divide)?
• RQ2: How do mobile Internet access, skills and usage relate to the married immigrants’ life satisfaction as outcomes of Internet use?

Background

Method

Data

This study utilized data from the Digital Divide Survey 2017 of the National Information Society Agency (NIA). In the survey, the population of married immigrants is defined as foreigners aged 18 or more who are married to Korean citizens, and with civil unions registered under the Multicultural Families Support Acts of August 1, 2017. A total of 700 samples were analyzed, according to gender, age, nationality, and proportional allocation by region. Data were collected through face-to-face interviews, based on a structured survey (National Information Society Agency, 2017) conducted from September to December 2017. Among the 700 married immigrant women included in the study sample, 681 were women and 19 were men. The data of 681 women were first extracted. 63 respondents were also deleted, including non-response on residence period (41) and non-response on average monthly income (22). The data of 618 were used for the final analysis. Table 1 lists the characteristics of the samples. The collected data were analyzed using STATA for descriptive statistics, internal consistency analysis for reliability verification, and exploratory factor analysis for validity verification. Logistic regression and hierarchical multiple regression analyses were also performed to analyze the determinants of the digital divide, and life satisfaction experienced by married immigrant women.

Table 1

Descriptive Statistics

Analyses and Results

Factor Analysis

To verify the validity of the measurement used in this study, an exploratory factor analysis was performed with the application of varimax rotation. The eigenvalue was set to one or more. Table 2 shows the five factors that accounted for 76.837% of the total variance.

Table 2

Exploratory Factor Analysis

Determinants Underlying Mobile Internet Access

Hierarchical logistic regression analyses, consisting of two models, were, conducted to analyze the underlying determinants of married immigrant women’s mobile Internet access.

[Model 1–1] indicates the influencing factors for mobile Internet access by considering the demographic factors of married immigrant women. R² is 20.7%. Among the personal factors of married immigrant women, age, education, period of residence in Korea, and average monthly household income had significant effects on mobile Internet access. Those in their 40s and 50s were less likely to own digital devices than those in their 20s or younger. It was found that participants with a college degree or higher education were more likely to possess digital devices than those with an educational background below middle school. The probability of owning digital devices was higher in the group with a residence period of 10 years or more, compared to the group with a residence period of less than five years. The odds ratio also increased for the groups with average monthly household incomes of 1 million won or more, compared to the groups with an average monthly income of less than 1 million won.

[Model 1–2] shows the determinants of mobile Internet access by including demographic factors, attitude towards technology and the Internet, and family support. R² is 49.7%, which is significantly improved compared to [Model 1–1]. Age, household income, desire to use digital information, and family support had significant effects on mobile Internet access. Households with an average monthly income of 2 to 4 million won or more, better attitude towards technology and the Internet, and higher family support were more likely to own digital devices (see Table 3). The results reveal that attitude towards technology and the Internet, and family support are important variables that interact with age and household income.

Table 3

Determinants Underlying Mobile Internet Access

Determinants of Mobile Internet Skills

To identify the factors affecting the digital ability of married immigrant women, three models were constructed, and hierarchical regression analyses were performed. [Model 2–1] shows the effect of demographic variables on mobile Internet skills. R² is 22.6%. Age, education, residence area, period of residence in Korea, and average monthly household income of married immigrant women have significant effects on mobile Internet skills. The older they are, the less mobile Internet skills they have. Married immigrant women with higher education (college or higher), urban residence, and residence in Korea for more than 10 years are also found to have higher mobile Internet usage ability.

[Model 2–2] analyzes the factors affecting mobile Internet skills by considering demographic variables, attitude towards technology and the Internet, and family support. R² was 44.8%, approximately 22.2% higher than [Model 2–1]. Age, education, attitude towards technology and the Internet, length of residence in Korea, and average monthly household income of married immigrant women significantly influence their ability to use the mobile Internet. Participants who were in their 20s or younger, the group that had a college degree or higher education, the group that belonged to households earning 4 million won or more, and those who had more positive attitude towards technology and the Internet had higher levels of mobile Internet skills.

In [Model 2–3], the digital divide factor, mobile Internet access, is input into [Model 2–2]. R² is 65.1%, a significant improvement compared to [Model 2–1] and [Model 2–2]. The results indicate that age, education, nationality, employment status, attitude towards technology and the Internet, family support, and mobile Internet access have significant effect on the mobile Internet skills of married immigrant women. Participants in their 20s and younger, those with higher education, those from China (ethnic Koreans) and other countries, and those who were employed, had higher mobile Internet skills. The results also showed that positive attitude towards technology and the Internet, along with family support, made mobile Internet access easier, indicating higher mobile Internet skills among married immigrant women. On the other hand, Table 4 indicates that the effect of attitude towards technology and the Internet decreased mobile Internet skills (β [Model 2–2] = 0.515) → β [Model 2–3] = 0.182). The influence of family support increased (β [Model 2–2] = –0.012 → β [Model 2–3] = 0.066]). These results reveal that pre-determined demographic variables, attitude towards technology and the Internet, and family support are important predictors of mobile Internet skills. Mobile Internet access is another important variable for explaining mobile Internet skills.

Table 4

Determinants Underlying Mobile Internet Skills

Determinants of Mobile Internet Usage

Three hierarchical models were used to analyze the factors that determine the Internet use of married immigrant women. [Model 3–1] analyzes the underlying factors of Internet use by considering demographic factors. R² is 10.9%. The results show that the use of mobile Internet by married immigrant women with college degrees and urban residences has increased.

[Model 3–2] analyzes the factors, including attitude towards technology and the Internet, and family support, in addition to demographic variables. R² was 22.9%, approximately 12.9% higher than [Model 3–1]. Compared to participants under 20 years of age, married immigrant women in urban areas with higher levels of college education had higher mobile Internet use. The mobile Internet usage rate of the group with an average monthly household income of 2 to 3 million won decreased. A positive attitude towards technology and the Internet are also associated with higher mobile Internet usage.

[Model 3–3] adds mobile Internet access and skills to [Model 3–2]. R² is 27.8%, which is slightly better than [Model 3–2]. The results show that a higher age, an urban area of residence, a lower household income, higher positive attitude towards technology and the Internet, and a higher level of mobile Internet skills are associated with a higher amount of mobile Internet usage. Comparing [Model 3–2] to [Model 3–3], the effect of attitude toward technology and the Internet on mobile Internet usage decreases (β [Model 3–2] = 0.377 → β [Model 3–3] = 0.220). Education was not a significant factor in [Model 3–3] (see Table 5). These findings indicate that the explanatory power of demographic variables for mobile Internet usage is lower than that of mobile Internet access and skills, while attitude towards technology has an increasing influence.

Table 5

Determinants of Mobile Internet Usage

Relationship between Digital Divide and Life Satisfaction

Hierarchical regression analyses were performed to examine the relationship between the determinants of the digital divide, and the perception of life satisfaction among married immigrant women. [Model 4–1] analyzes life satisfaction as a dependent variable, with demographic factors as independent variables. R² is 10.1%. Age, area of residence, and average monthly income had significant effects on life satisfaction. Women in their 40s have a lower quality of life than those in their 20s. Life satisfaction is higher when they reside in urban areas, and have higher monthly household incomes.

Table 6

The Relationship between Digital Divide and Life Satisfaction

[Model 4–2] adds family support to [Model 4–1]. R² is 31.6%, approximately 21.5% higher than [Model 4–1]. Residential area, average monthly household income, and family support have positive effects on life satisfaction. For women living in urban areas, the higher the average monthly household income and family support, the higher the life satisfaction.

[Model 4–3] adds mobile Internet access, skills, and usage to [Model 4–2]. R² is 36.8%, which is slightly better than [Model 4–2]. The higher the average monthly household income, family support, and mobile Internet usage, the higher the life satisfaction. Comparing [Model 4–2] and [Model 4–3], (β [Model 4–3] = 0.489 → β [Model 4–3] = 0.458), the influence of family support on life satisfaction is slightly decreased. These findings indicate that economic and social capital, and mobile Internet usage are important factors in explaining the life satisfaction of married immigrant women.

Discussion and Conclusions

This study analyzes the effects of various demographic variables, attitude towards technology and the Internet, and family support on mobile Internet access, skills, and usage of married immigrant women, and their life satisfaction. The findings are summarized below.

First, age, average monthly household income, attitude towards technology and the Internet, and family support were found to be important determinants of mobile Internet access. The average monthly household income of married immigrant women in their 20s or younger was between 2 to 4 million won. These women are more likely to own digital devices when the family support is less. On the other hand, women in their 40s and 50s, with an average monthly income of less than 1 million won, are less likely to own digital devices. The findings suggest that age, household income, attitude toward technology and the Internet, and family support are important factors for mobile Internet access.

Second, age, education, nationality, employment status, attitude toward technology and the Internet, family support, and mobile Internet access have significant effects on mobile Internet usage. Women in their 40s, who are highly educated, and hail from China (ethnic Koreans living in China) and other countries, show high abilities to use mobile Internet. Women possessing these digital skills also show positive attitude toward technology and the Internet, receive support from their families, and have improved mobile Internet access.

Third, Internet usage is significantly impacted by age, residence area, average monthly household income, attitude toward technology and the Internet, and mobile Internet skills. Women with high mobile Internet skills have shown an increase in their use of mobile Internet.

Fourth, average monthly household income, attitude toward technology and the Internet, family support, and mobile Internet usage have significant effects on life satisfaction. Women with an average monthly income of 4 million won or more, high family support, and high mobile Internet usage improved their life satisfaction.

The results of these analyses present the following suggestions for policies. First, the determinants of mobile Internet access, skills, and usage are analyzed by considering the multidimensional characteristics of digital divides. The scope of this concept and its determinants can be expanded by understanding the influence of motivational and social factors. The explanatory power of demographic variables for digital divides was more than 20% for mobile Internet access and skills, whereas the explanatory power for mobile Internet usage decreased to 10%. This implies that while demographic variables are not sufficient conditions, they are still important factors in explaining, and predicting mobile Internet access, skills, and usage. Unlike demographic variables, attitude towards technology and the Internet, and family support have a relatively high explanatory power regarding mobile Internet skills and usage. In particular, the influence and explanatory power of attitude toward technology and the Internet are stable under the influence of mobile Internet access, skills, and use. This suggests that it is important to consider the influence of psychological motivation in the study of digital divides on marginalized demographics in relation to mobile Internet access.

Second, an empirical basis is provided to investigate the relationship between mobile Internet access, skills, usage, and life satisfaction. Although the digital divide is not a sufficient condition to predict life satisfaction, the empirical results imply that the positive effects of mobile Internet usage on life satisfaction may provide important insights for future research. For studies on digital divides, life satisfaction can be considered an important outcome factor related to Internet usage. Digital divides can also be considered as important predictive variables.

Third, support for improving mobile Internet access should be expanded. Although access to mobile Internet continues to improve, there are difficulties in using mobile Internet because of the burden of mobile Internet usage fees. Economic level (especially low income) can act as an obstacle to digital access. Therefore, to effectively bridge the digital divide, in terms of mobile Internet access, the government or local bodies should increase the retention rates of digital devices through the distribution of green PCs, and smartphone support projects for involuntary Internet users. It is also necessary to ensure that mobile Internet access fees are not excluded from digital access schemes by providing adequate support for Internet usage fees.

Fourth, the suitability of informatization education for married immigrant women should be improved. The content of information education can be reviewed, and the target of education can be selected. It is also important to support the implementation of information education with the help of families. As for information service education content, along with the ability to use digital devices, women should be educated on the effective use of information. It is necessary to select “involuntary non-users” among married immigrant women, who are willing to, but cannot use the Internet, to enhance the educational effect. Unemployed and/or people in their 30s and 40s should be selected to increase the effectiveness of the education. Since married immigrant women often ask for help from their families when using mobile devices, family support is an important factor in improving their mobile Internet skills. The spouses and/or children also need education-related support, especially support for the ability to use mobile devices.

Fifth, it is important to prepare a plan to support various mobile Internet uses. As mentioned above, the use of mobile Internet by married immigrant women can positively affect their life satisfaction. To raise the level of mobile Internet usage amongst married immigrant women, it is necessary to develop high-quality multicultural content. The levels of mobile Internet usage and life satisfaction can be improved by providing information that could support women in their self-development, education, and learning efforts as they adapt to the Korean society and culture. Through self-development, education, and learning, the provision of information on the Korean society or culture, and participation in socio-economic activities, the use of digital information, capital, and life satisfaction will be improved.

Sixth, it is necessary to develop, and implement a customized solution strategy to improve the mobile Internet access, skills, and usage level amongst married immigrant women. While some married immigrant women may have lower or higher levels of mobile Internet access, skills, and usage, others have higher access but lower skills. Therefore, the government should develop appropriate policy designs that consider the digital divides experienced by married immigrant women, and increase the effectiveness of the policies.

Furthermore, academic research on the digital divide among married immigrant women is needed. Many previous studies have reported that women have lower internet access, skills, and use than men. Immigrants are reported to have lower internet access, skills, and use than natives, and differences according to nationality are also reported. In this context, married immigrant women can be recognized as a vulnerable class. The digital divide has important meaning not only for individual life satisfaction, but also for successful adaptation and social integration in Korean society. To resolve the digital divide of married immigrant women, research using various methodologies should be conducted by comprehensively considering demographic characteristics, personal needs, and social characteristics.

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