Visual Representation of Gender in English Language Textbooks of Bangladesh and Teachers’ Voices

Introduction

Textbooks are considered the most accessible resource for learning for young learners. They play a vital role in socialisation or transmission of knowledge or values (Curaming & Curaming, 2020). There are various aspects that a textbook can evaluate (Sovič & Hus, 2016). Curriculum developers have emphasized the importance of assessing and adjusting content to align with the requirements of students (Brown, 2000; Tomlinson, 2012). Nevertheless, visual analysis is referred to as highly significant for the EFL textbooks by numerous researchers since visuals help learners clarify the concepts of the textbooks. “Semiotics in illustration are very specific element especially because they have great influence on children’s visual perception” (Sovič & Hus, 2016, p. 639). Thus, visualization helps formulate the perceptions of the learners. Hence, several research studies explored the significance of visual representation of gender in school textbooks since less visibility of one gender adheres to discrimination. The visual imbalance between females and males might distort the values of young learners, as visual discourse along with written discourse works as a significant tool for successful communication (Giaschi, 2000). “Much meaning is conveyed through images, photos, cartoons and illustrations, any visual misrepresentation of females and males might spoil the bias-free texts or distort the high values preached to students in the course of their learning experiences” (Khalid & Ghania, 2019, p. 774). Therefore, the present study analyzed gender positioning in the visual discourse in textbooks.

The study examines the English for Today (EfT) textbooks used at the primary level of education in Bangladesh, which are published and distributed by the National Curriculum and Textbook Board (NCTB) for the academic year 2023. Primary education serves as the foundation of a child’s academic journey and plays a crucial role in shaping cognitive, linguistic, and social development. In Bangladesh, primary education spans from Class I to Class V, covering subjects such as Bangla, English, mathematics, science, social studies, religion and moral education, and physical education. Among these, English holds a distinctive position due to its role as a global lingua franca and its perceived value in shaping students' future opportunities. Moreover, EfT textbooks are the only government-approved English textbooks for primary education, they are highly representative of the broader educational context in Bangladesh.

Proficiency in English is widely regarded as a key determinant of social and economic mobility in Bangladesh, as it enhances access to higher education, employment opportunities, and international communication (Nur et al., 2021). Given this significance, English language textbooks serve not only as linguistic tools but also as socio-cultural artifacts that influence students’ perceptions of the world, including gender roles and identities. Prior research has emphasized that language textbooks play a critical role in promoting or challenging gender stereotypes. For example, Isnaini et al. (2019) highlighted that English textbooks contribute to the development of intercultural competence, reinforcing or challenging existing social norms, including those related to gender.

Despite growing awareness of gender equality in educational materials, studies have shown that gender biases persist in many English language textbooks worldwide. In the context of Bangladesh, where gender disparities remain a pressing issue in various social and economic spheres, it is crucial to examine whether textbooks perpetuate or challenge traditional gender norms. Women in Bangladesh have made significant strides in education, employment, and political participation over the years. According to the Ministry of Planning (2022), the literacy rate for females was 74.7% in 2022, reflecting improvements in educational attainment. However, disparities persist in labor force participation, with only 42.7% of women engaged in the workforce compared to 81.7% of men (Ministry of Planning, 2022). Nevertheless, gender gaps remain evident in leadership roles and wages, indicating continued societal challenges in Bangladesh. These inequalities often stem from deeply embedded cultural norms and are reinforced through various socialization agents, including textbooks. Therefore, it is imperative to analyze whether educational materials support gender equity or perpetuate stereotypes that hinder progress toward gender equality.

Hence, this study investigated the visual representation of gender in primary-level English for Today textbooks, analyzing how male and female figures are portrayed in images. Additionally, it incorporates teachers’ perspectives to gain insights into how these representations influence classroom discourse and student perceptions. The study is guided by the following research questions:

• i) How do the textbooks visually construct gender representation?
• ii) How do teachers perceive the visual representation of gender?
• iii) What do the teachers think of promoting gender equality in the textbooks?

Methods

This study employed a mixed-methods approach, combining both quantitative and qualitative research methods, to provide a comprehensive understanding of gender representation in textbooks and teachers’ perceptions. This approach allowed for both in-depth analysis of the visual aspects of gender representation in textbooks and exploration of teachers’ perceptions through interviews. The mixed-methods approach is recognized as a valuable way of combining different types of data to enrich the findings (Creswell, 2005; Dörnyei, 2007).

The study focused on the English for Today (EfT) textbooks used in Bangladesh’s primary education system for Classes I to V. These textbooks are core materials in the Bangladeshi primary school curriculum and are central to classroom instruction. The analysis centered on the visual representation of gender in these textbooks, including the depictions of male and female characters in illustrations, as well as the linguistic representation of gender through text.

Results

Equal visibility of male and female characters is one of the significant criteria to achieve gender equitable textbooks. In order to measure the visibility firstly, the numbers of images referring to men and women in the textbooks were counted in this study by the researcher. Then, the images and captions were analyzed through gender lens. Findings have been presented below through tables and figures.

Class V

Figure 1 exposed that only 41% female characters were portrayed through images, whereas it was 59% for male characters. Findings indicated unequal representation of female and male characters in the English for Today textbook for Class V. In some images, it was not possible to analyze the content. For example, it was not possible to identify female and male characters clearly in the images of the workers, repairing the bridge and the river flooded the field (NCTB, 2023, Class V, p. 94). Discrimination was found not only in the number of images but also in visualization. For instance, while women were visualized in fashion and health magazine, men were pictured in sports magazine in Unit 4, Lesson 5. Visualizing women in fashion or health and men in sports represented the patriarchal manifestation. Men were also highlighted in sports in unit 17, lessons 1 and 2. These lessons displayed eight types of sports activities through images, including cycling, kabadi, weightlifting, volleyball, badminton, swimming, cricket, and football where men outnumbered. The following figure displayed those images of sports activities.

Figure 1.

Visibility of Female and Male Characters in the Textbook for Class V.

In Figure 2 women appeared in only two images, shown playing football and badminton. In contrast, men were portrayed participating in kabadi, cycling, weightlifting, and cricket. The images did not clearly indicate whether men and women were involved in volleyball and swimming. However, the textbook (p.66) mentioned Anousha, stating that she went swimming and cycling; therefore, the image of the person in the swimming suit could be Anousha.

Figure 2.

Depiction of Men and Women in Various Sports Activities.

Besides, discrimination was also noticed in characterization through visuals in the following image:

Figure 3 vividly illustrated gender disparity through its portrayal of traditional gender roles. The image depicted a woman engaged in a domestic task—sewing—while the father was shown writing and the boy is reading. This visual reinforces stereotypical gender roles, positioning the woman within a passive, household- oriented role, while the male figures are associated with intellectual and productive activities.

Figure 3.

Discrimination in Characterization.

Class IV

Along with the English for Today textbook for Class V, the textbook for Class IV also exposed discrimination in visualization. The following table presented the frequency of male and female images:

Table 1 showed that 55% of the images in the Class IV English textbook depicted male characters, while 45% depicted female characters. The images were manually counted based on distinct visual representations. The numerical difference indicated a higher visibility of male characters, suggesting a gender imbalance. Additionally, female characters were often portrayed in stereotypical roles, reinforcing traditional gender norms.

Table 1.

Visibility of Male and Female Characters in the Textbook for Class IV

Figure 4 depicted a male character who was reading newspaper, whereas a female character was taking tea. Figure 5 showed that Sagar’s grandfather was reading stories to him; no female character was visualized in the textbook with reading or writing activities.

Figure 4.

Visualization of a Man and a Woman.

Figure 5.

Visualization of the Role of a Man.

Besides, discriminatory gender role was explored in unit 40, lessons 1-2. The lessons showed an image of a garment factory where all the workers are female.

Women were visualized as garment workers in figure 6. In reality, men also work in the garment factories which was ignored in this textbook.

Figure 6.

Female Characters as Garment Workers.

Class III

Discrimination was also noticed regarding visualization of men and women in the textbook for Class III. The following table presented discrimination in the number of male and female images:

Table 2 showed that 48% female characters and 52% male characters were portrayed through images in the EfT textbook for Class III. Thus, women suffered from low visibility in the textbook for Class III.

Table 2.

Visibility of Male and Female Characters in the Textbook for Class III

Besides, only boys were portrayed in sports activities in the English language textbook for Class III like the textbook for Class V. Unit 33, lessons 1-2, and unit 35, lessons 1-3, of the EfT textbook for Class III showed two images where boys were playing football, but no girls were portrayed in sports throughout the textbook. In contrast, a woman was shown sewing in Unit 35, lessons 4-6. Thus, female characters were visualized in stereotypical roles. Such representation manifested that the indoor work was meant for women whereas sports or outside activities were for men.

Besides, discrimination in the domestic role was presented through the images and instructions in unit 9, lessons 4-6 of the EfT textbook for Class III. There were four images in these lessons. The first two images contained the instructions of a mother to her daughter when the daughter came home from school. The mother asked her daughter to put her bag down and then change her clothes.

The captions in figure 7 showed that the mother asked the daughter to help her when she came back from school. However, no male character was shown helping in the household menial activities. Such representation manifested biased domestic roles for boys and girls.

Figure 7.

A Girl in Household Activities.

Class II

The EfT textbook for Class II was found as an exception regarding the number of male-female images. A high frequency of female images was noticed in the textbook of Class II. Nevertheless, discrimination was revealed in the images. The following table represented the number of images for male and female characters:

Table 3 showed that 60% of female characters and 40% of male characters have been portrayed through images. Though the EfT textbook of Class II showed more images of female characters than male ones, some images demonstrated discriminatory gender roles for boys and girls. Such as, unit 15, lessons 1-4 of Class II showed a girl named Rima who was busy gardening. Rima’s weekly activities were shown through images. Rima was shown putting and nurturing a seed in a tub. However, no boy was shown in such activities and thus, gardening was presented as girls’ work.

Table 3.

Visibility of Male and Female Characters in the Textbook for Class II

Moreover, The EfT textbook for Class II also reinforced gender-biased domestic roles. In Unit 27, Lessons 1-3, Anita Sarkar was depicted as a school teacher. The story Anita’s Life portrayed her morning routine, stating, “She gets up early in the morning. She cooks breakfast for her family” (NCTB, 2023, Class III, p. 54). Only after completing these household responsibilities does she proceed to her professional duties at school.

Figures 8 and 9 illustrated that Anita Sarker was required to cook before leaving for school. The story suggested that women had to fulfill their household duties first before attending to their professional responsibilities. However, no male figure was depicted as having to manage both domestic and professional tasks.

Figure 8.

Anita Sarker was Cooking.

Figure 9.

Anita Sarker was Teaching.

Besides, discrimination was noticed in the facial expressions of a boy and a girl in the following figure:

Figure 10 illustrated a boy depicted with a happy expression, while a girl appeared sad. This contrast in facial expressions is significant because visual representations in textbooks contribute to shaping learners’ perceptions of gender roles and emotions. The consistent portrayal of boys as cheerful and girls as unhappy may reinforce gendered stereotypes, suggesting that positive emotions and confidence are more commonly associated with males, while females are linked to vulnerability or distress. Such representations, when recurring, can contribute to implicit biases about gendered emotional expressions, leading to an imbalance in how boys and girls perceive their roles in society.

Figure 10.

Discrimination in Facial Expression.

Class I

The EfT textbook for Class I also revealed the high frequency of female images like the textbook for Class II. Nevertheless, the textbooks for Class I also conveyed unfair messages through images. The following table has presented the number of male-female images:

Table 4 showed 52.5% female characters and 47.5% male characters through images. Like Class II, the EfT textbook for Class I also showed more female images. Though female characters outnumbered through images, discrimination was noticed in visualization and explanation. For instance, a girl was visualized looking after the domestic animals in unit 2, lesson 15, and a woman was visualized cooking in unit 4, lesson 4, whereas a boy was visualized catching fish in unit 2, lesson 15, and a man was also shown catching fish along with a boy in unit 2, lesson 6. Hence, gender-discriminated roles were depicted through these visuals.

Table 4.

Visibility of Male and Female Characters in the Textbook for Class I

Thus, discrimination was noticed in depicting men and women in the textbooks at the primary level of education in Bangladesh. Men and women were depicted in conventional gender roles through images. Hence, the reinforcement of patriarchal family structure was explored in the EfT textbooks.

Discussion

Findings of the study revealed that the majority of images in the primary textbooks exhibited clear signs of gender-based disparity, with female characters being underrepresented. This imbalance was particularly evident in the English for Today (EfT) textbooks for Classes V, IV, and III, where male characters appeared more frequently than their female counterparts. The lack of equal visibility suggests that gender representation in these educational materials does not align with principles of inclusivity and equity.

Along with the number of images, women were discriminated against by men in visualization in the textbooks. Whereas men were more visualized in the sports and outdoor activities and women were visualized in the household routine activities in the EfT textbooks for Classes V, Class IV and Class III. Such representation can transmit the perception to the learners that outdoor activities should be dominated or monopolized by boys whereas; girls are restricted to household chores.

While a woman was visualized in a fashion magazine, men were visualized in a sports magazine in unit 4, lesson 5 in the book of Class V. Visualization of women in fashion and health magazines reflected stereotypical forms of feminine identity as disciplinary practices such as dieting, beauty techniques, fashion tend to transform the female “body” as an object (Foucault, 1977). Discriminatory visualization was also noticed in the textbook for Class III and Class II where men were visualized in sports and women in sewing and household chores (Figures 7, 8, and 9). Men in sports and women with handicrafts, magazines or household chores display traditional stereotypical roles of men and women (Musty, 2015). In his study, Musty also mentioned that such traditional roles of men and women make textbooks gendered. However, women in Bangladesh are actively participating in sports, and economic and political activities, but textbooks did not include this reality. Thus, women’s participation in sports and outdoor activities was not appropriately projected in the textbooks. However, real and appropriate culture needs to be represented in the classroom (Hartman & Judd, 1978). Therefore, textbooks should highlight women’s participation and achievement instead of simply visualizing them in fashion and health magazines or portraying them in handicrafts.

Besides, depicting male characters in reading, and writing and female characters in cooking, and looking after the children also manifest inequality. Figures 3, 4, and 5 depicted a biased representation of gender roles. These figures illustrated the involvement of men in reading and educational activities. In Figure 3, a boy was shown reading, and a man was writing, while a woman was depicted sewing. Figure 4 presented a man reading a newspaper, whereas a woman was simply having tea. Similarly, Figure 5 showed a man assisting his grandson with his studies.

Gender stereotype was embedded as no woman was shown reading the newspaper or writing anything throughout the textbooks (from Class I to Class V). Such underrepresentation can be viewed as an implicit indication of the unworthiness of women (Porreca, 1984). Nevertheless, such negligence of women in the textbooks may limit the expectations of the girls (Suchana, 2021). In contrast, if women were visualized in reading and writing activities or as important people in society, that could motivate girls. Female visibility in the textbooks in important positions in society may inspire girls (Goyal & Rose, 2020).

In addition, visualizing only female characters as garment workers reinforces gender stereotypes. Portraying only the female workers in the garment factory (in Figure 6) revealed discrimination as men also work in the garment factories in Bangladesh. Thus, social reality was not presented there. Besides, women were merely presented as garment workers, but their contribution to the Readymade Garments (RMG) sector was not manifested, whereas this sector (RMG) has emerged as the leading sector of the Bangladeshi economy. Female contribution to the labor market is contributing to the social and economic progress of the country (Chowdhury, 2018). However, such contribution of women in poverty reduction and socioeconomic progress was ignored in the textbooks. Thus, social reality was denied in the textbooks of the primary level of education. Nevertheless, the necessity of representation of the real world in the textbook was indicated by Goyal and Rose (2020). They mentioned that textbooks should keep up with the changes in society and the progress of women in the actual world.

Although gender bias in textbooks remains a significant concern, some encouraging representation was observed in the textbooks for Classes II and I, where female characters appeared more frequently than males. However, despite this numerical advantage, a qualitative analysis of certain images revealed underlying biases in the way female characters were portrayed, indicating that mere visibility does not necessarily translate to equitable representation. For example, unit 15, lessons 1-4 of Class II showed a girl named Rima who was busy gardening, which is an unpaid domestic work and stereotypically associated with girls. Besides, the images of unit 29, lessons 1-3 of Class II visualized a boy with a happy face and a girl with a sad face. Such facial expressions reflected discrimination, as body posture and facial expressions may convey meaning to the learners (Khalid & Ghania, 2019). Besides, images in the textbooks for Class I also displayed discrimination by portraying men in outdoor activities and women in indoor activities.

The above discussion revealed the answer to research question 1 of the study. Instances of embedded inequality have been uncovered through the interpretation of the visual discourses. Such discrimination in visuals carries implicit messages of men’s dominance over women. However, if equal visibility can be displayed in the textbooks, girls may formulate their mindset regarding their participation in all sorts of actions.

Further, in the current study, the interviewed teachers revealed unequal representation of men and women through visuals along with the textual content. Prevailing gender stereotyping in visuals was also noticed by Finnish teachers in the study of Tainio and Karvonen (2015). Like the interviewed teachers in the current study, Finnish teachers mentioned the adverse effects of the discriminatory representation of visuals on young learners. Bangladeshi teachers in the current study argued that discriminatory representation may lower the motivation of female learners. On the other hand, the overrepresentation of men will manifest the power of men. A similar perception was also noticed in the study of Hossain (2018). The interviewed teachers in Hossain’s (2018) study revealed that in the ELT textbooks, male characters were often portrayed as scholars whereas women’s successes had not been focused on. Thus, the participants in Hossain’s study recommended gender-neutral textbooks. However, if the textbooks demonstrate the superiority of men and the inferiority of women, teachers can play the role of minimizing the gap (Goyal & Rose, 2020). According to Goyal and Rose, teachers can critically examine the overrepresentation of men in certain characters. Further, “teachers can make girls play the part of boys and vice-versa to foreground the prevalence of stereotypical notions about gender” (Goyal & Rose, 2020, p. 22). Thus, teachers’ explanation and interpretation regarding the depiction of male and female characters in texts and visuals can promote gender equality. However, teachers in the current study felt that they (teachers) discussed the textual contents, explained the images, and thus conveyed the messages of the textbook writers in the classroom. Therefore, it is the responsibility of the writers to produce gender-neutral content. Thus, answers to research questions 2 and 3 of this study have been revealed by exploring the perceptions and recommendations of the teachers.

To sum up, the perceptions of the teachers of the primary schools located in urban and rural areas of Bangladesh revealed the existence of gender bias in the visuals of the textbooks, and they emphasized the necessity of updating the existing textbooks to ensure equal portrayal of men and women. Thus, the voices of the teachers reflected the necessity of promoting equality through primary textbooks. The research studies across the globe echoed the voices of Bangladeshi teachers.

Conclusions

Finally, the study exposed biased representations of gender in textbooks at the primary level of education in Bangladesh. The content analysis revealed that females are underrepresented and less visible in the images and illustrations. Though there are some encouraging examples, female representations are still much less as compared to those of males. Besides, the examination of teachers’ perceptions revealed their acknowledgement of the discriminatory exhibition of men and women in textbooks. Since visual presentation in the textbooks has a significant influence on young learners’ visual perception, unequal representation of females in the textbooks will signal their invisibility and inferiority in society to them (learners). Hence, teachers in the current study felt the necessity of reviewing the existing textbooks and producing gender-equitable contents. Thus, the study suggested deconstructing stereotypical feminine traits in visuals and producing gender-neutral materials for the improvement of the learners as well as society.

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