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Asian Women - The Research Institute of Asian Women
[ Article ]
Asian Women - Vol. 29, No. 1, pp.79-104
ISSN: 1225-925X (Print)
Print publication date Mar 2013
DOI: https://doi.org/10.14431/aw.2013.03.29.1.79

Why Women Volunteer in Korea

KimMay
Korea University, South Korea

The purpose of the study is to explore gender differences in volunteering based on the relationships of identification and volunteer satisfaction. Specifically, this study investigated how the relative contribution of three different foci of identification (sport, community, and volunteering) and volunteer satisfaction in the pregames of the Special Olympics World Winter Games related to four different types of volunteering intentions, and how these intentions differ between male and female volunteers. Identification with volunteering was a significant predictor of volunteer intentions regardless of gender and volunteer opportunities. Volunteer satisfaction was a critical factor only for female volunteers in predicting future volunteering intentions similar to the current volunteer experiences.

Keywords:

Volunteering, gender difference, identification, satisfaction, intentions

Introduction

Volunteering has become an important aspect in society. Over 26% of Americans volunteered in 2010 (Corporation of National and Community Services, 2011) and the total monetary value of these volunteer services was approximately $173 billion (Independent Sector, 2011). As an increasing number of people have begun to participate in volunteering activities, research on volunteering has been conducted in many academic fields. Researchers focusing on the volunteering phenomenon are interested in the gender differences in volunteering behaviors and perceptions related to these behaviors. According to data from the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics (2012), 29.9% of women and 23.5% of men volunteered in 2010. Even after controlling for income, age, and education, single women tend to volunteer more and contribute more volunteer hours than single men (Mesch, Rooney, Steinberg, & Denton, 2006). Also in Korea, the volunteer rate of women is slightly more than 20% and women volunteer more than men (Cho, Han, & Lee, 2009). However, in terms of median volunteer hours, men (52 hours) annually volunteered slightly more than women did (50 hours) in America (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2012).

Researchers have speculated that these gender differences are based on employment status (i.e., men generally work longer hours than women do), volunteer jobs (i.e., certain types of volunteering, such as firefighting jobs, have strong gender norms), and motivational differences (e.g., caring nature of women) (see, e.g., Einolf, 2011; Rotolo & Wilson, 2007). Most studies on gender differences in volunteering‐related perceptions have showed that women scored higher than men on volunteer motivation (Clary et al., 1998), caring (Skoe, Cumberland, Eisenberf, Hansen, & Perry, 2002), and moral obligation (Lee, Piliavin, & Call, 1999; Schwartz, 1977). These results have only indicated that women may be, by nature, generous and caring and have not successfully explained why women are different from men in terms of volunteering behaviors.

A key interest of volunteer organizations is retaining volunteers, motivating them to work, or letting them return the organization/event. With experienced volunteers, organizations can provide high‐quality services to beneficiaries and save money on the recruitment and training of new volunteers (Kim, Chelladurai, & Trail, 2007). Continuous volunteer experiences with the same organization will also provide leisurely satisfaction to volunteers (Stebbins, 1996). However, most research on gender differences in volunteering does not focus on volunteer retention and fails to explain why more women volunteer, but for fewer hours, than men. This situation calls for research using different approaches in order to understand the uniqueness of female and male volunteers and suggest managerial practices that will retain female volunteers based on gender specific characteristics.

Beyond motivation, previous research has reported that a close relationship between volunteers’ identification (Kim, 2012; M. Kim, M. K. Kim, & Odio, 2010; Tidwell, 2005) and volunteer satisfaction (Andrew, S. M. Kim, & M. Kim, 2011; Finkelstein, 2008; Vecina, Chacon, Sueiro, & Barron, 2012) and their intention to continue volunteering. Identification is a reference that guides the future behavior of the individual (Jun & Kyle, 2012), and job or volunteer satisfaction is the most recognized antecedent of retention or turnover (Andrew et al., 2011; Finkelstein, 2008; Vecina et al., 2012). Thus, in this study, gender differences in volunteering are explored on the basis of identification and satisfaction. Specifically, the study focuses on revealing how the various foci of identification (i.e., identification with sport, community, and volunteering) and volunteer experiences (i.e., volunteer satisfaction) in an event (i.e., the pre‐game of Special Olympics World Games) are different for male and female volunteers in terms of predicting intentions for different future volunteer opportunities. Although volunteers at an international event are more likely to be episodic volunteers, volunteering at the mega event can be the first formal volunteering experience for many of volunteers and their volunteering experiences can influence their future volunteering at another event or in community (Doherty, 2012). Thus, this study also considers various future volunteer opportunities, those closely related to the current volunteer experiences, Special Olympics World Winter Games (SOW), those at bigger events held at the same location, Winter Olympic Games (WOG), those at similar events held on a smaller scale, domestic Special Olympics (DSO), and general volunteering (GV). By examining intentions to take up different volunteer opportunities, the gender differences in the relationships of the different foci of identification and volunteer satisfaction with volunteer intentions could be revealed.

Gender differences in volunteering

Researchers have attempted to find gender differences in the perceptions and behaviors related to volunteering. The most commonly researched areas are volunteer behaviors and motivation. Generally, more women than men volunteer (Kaminski, 1996; Wuthnow, 1996). Although volunteers in a few areas with strong gender norms (e.g., sports and recreation coaching, firefighting) are dominantly male (Wilson, 1990), the active volunteer participation of women has been well documented (e.g., Gillespie & King, 1985; Hodgkinson, Weitzman, Noga, & Gorski, 1992; A. H. Kidd & R. M. Kidd, 1997; Latting, 1990; U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2012).

Women generally score higher than men on various measures related to volunteerism including prosocial behaviors and perceptions, such as caring, self‐sacrifice, altruism, empathy, concern for the well‐being of others (see, e.g., Andreoni & Vesterlund, 2001; Belle, 1982; Davis, 1994; Eagly & Steffen, 1984; Eisenberg, 1992; Hoffman, 1977; Lyons, 1983; Mills, Pedersen, & Grusec, 1989; Wilson & Musick, 1997), role identity (Lee et al., 1999; Piliavin & Callero, 1991), and moral obligation (Lee et al., 1999; Nock, Kingston, & Holian, 2008; Schwartz, 1977). However, recent research on volunteer motivation has revealed more complex results. Robinson (1999) found that men are likely to volunteer with altruistic motives while women tend to have individualistic motives. Eagly and Crowley (1986) and Osward (2000) showed that men are more altruistic than women. Others have found that men are not actually different from women in their altruistic behaviors (Chou, 1998; Radke‐Yarrow, Zahn‐Waxler, & Chapman, 1983), generative concern (McAdams & de St. Aubin, 1998), helpfulness (Penner & Finkelstein, 1998), and volunteer motives (Fletcher & Major, 2004).

The results on gender differences in the volunteer hours devoted are also inconclusive. Although fewer men participate in volunteering, men devote more volunteer hours than women (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2012). Further, a positive relationship between the degree of altruism and the amount of time committed to volunteering was found only among male volunteers (Van Emmerik & Stone, 2002). This may be because men tend to contribute more time to causes they believe to be important and relevant (Ibrahim & Brannen, 1997). However, Mesch et al. (2006) found that single women volunteer for more hours than single men, afteafter controlling other related factors such as income, age, and education.

Although researchers have noted that women are different from men in volunteer behaviors and perceptions, the research on gender difference is contradictory. In addition, most research on gender differences in volunteering focuses on the fundamental differences between men and women, and this approach does not provide any helpful guidelines for organizations in recruiting, managing, and retaining male or female volunteers specifically. Different approaches to investigate gender differences in volunteering are required.

Different foci of volunteer identification

A group of researchers tried to understand volunteerism using social identity theory (Kim, 2012; Kim et al., 2010; Tidwell, 2005). According to the social identity theory, individuals are likely to create their social identities in accordance with the significant groups or organizations they belong to (Tajfel & Turner, 1979; Turner, 1987). Social categorization and identification of individuals, including demographic categorizations and organizational membership (Turner, 1982), develop with reference to numerous groups the individual belongs to. Individuals get attached to their groups or organizations when the membership contributes toward their positive social identities (Tyler & Blader, 2001, 2002). Individuals with strong social identification with the organization/group tend to be more motivated (Ellemers, De Gilder, & Haslam, 2004); show cooperative, supportive, and group‐oriented behaviors (Tyler & Blader, 2001, 2002); and engage in prosocial behaviors (Organ, 1988). Organ (1990) defined prosocial behaviors as any behaviors performed for the group without requirement or reward, so volunteerism can be seen as one such behavior.

Individuals with strong group/organizational identification tend toward prosocial behaviors (i.e., volunteering) for the benefit of their groups or organizations. The relationship between group/organizational identification and volunteer behaviors has been well reported in various groups of people, such as students (Mael & Ashforth, 1992; O’Reilly & Chatman, 1986), religious people (Becker & Dhingra, 2001), and employees (Dutton, Dukerich, & Harquail, 1994; Kramer, 1993). Further, in nonprofit settings, many individuals volunteer on the basis of volunteer identification (Grube & Piliavin, 2000; Lee et al., 1999) and increase prosocial behaviors for the benefit of their organizations (Bartel, 2001; Kramer, 1991, 1993; Turner, 1982). Others may get involved in volunteering owing to social identification with prestigious or successful groups or organizations (Dutton et al., 1994; Mael & Ashforth, 1992; Smidts, Van Riel, & Pruyn, 2001). Overall, the various foci of identification play a critical role in prompting individuals to volunteer.

Volunteers’ different foci of identification have often been researched in sport/event volunteering settings. Kim and Trail (2007) found that volunteers possess different foci of identification (e.g., identification with sport, community, and volunteering), which influence their intentions for future volunteering. Research on sporting event volunteers (Kim, 2012) shows that identification with sport and with community is differently related to volunteer intention. In volunteer motivation research, numerous researchers considering sport volunteers have found identification with sport (i.e., love of sport) and identification with community (i.e., concern for community) to be significant motives (Bang, Alexandris, & Ross, 2009; B. S. Coyne & E. J. Coyne, 2001; Farrell, Johnston, & Twynam, 1998; Williams, Dossa, & Tompkins, 1995).

Gender differences in different foci of identification and their influences on volunteer retention (or intention to stay/return) are not known. However, research has shown that women and men differ in various aspects of volunteering, such as volunteer motivation and behaviors. Thus, it is expected that gender differences in volunteering related to social identification exist. Accordingly, three specific foci of identification (i.e., identification with community, sport, and volunteering), which are known to be relevant for volunteer retention in sporting events, were included in this study.

Gender differences in satisfaction and retention

As retaining quality employees is a vital interest to human resources management, volunteer retention is a popular subject in volunteer management research. The antecedents of volunteer retention include person ‐environment fit (Kim et al., 2007; M. Kim, Trail, Lim, & Y. K. Kim, 2009), managerial practices (Cuskelly, Taylor, Hoye, & Darcy, 2006), and organizational support (Farmer & Fedor, 1997), all of which could be considered as various aspects of volunteer satisfaction. More directly, various studies have shown the positive relationship between volunteer satisfaction and retention (or intention to continue or return) in sporting event volunteering (Andrew et al., 2011), non‐profit organization volunteering (Vecina et al., 2012), and long‐term hospice volunteering (Finkelstein, 2008).

The relationship between satisfaction and retention can be explained According to the social exchange theory, individuals act based on a subjective cost analysis (Blau, 1994). That is, volunteers in an event may make a choice in their behaviors as an exchange of various opportunities in volunteering such as satisfaction in personal value fulfillment, learning new things, self‐confidence, making career related networks (Sherr, 2008). Further, the premise of the social learning theory is that people learn in institutionalized settings and people and situations mutually influence each other to produce behaviors (Bandura, 1977). That is, a person can continue with or quit a job based on what situation he or she believes is a better option (Mischel, 1973). Thus, some situational factors (e.g., satisfaction) influence those of each gender more toward turnover or retention (Miller & Wheeler, 1992). No known study has explored gender differences in the relationship between volunteer satisfaction and volunteer retention/turnover. However, Miller and Wheeler (1992) found that two components of job satisfaction significantly predicted the intent to leave for women but not for men in the paid employee setting. Based on Miller and Wheeler’s work (1992), it can be assumed that the relationship between volunteer satisfaction and intention to stay/return differs for men and women. Further, volunteer satisfaction would more directly influence volunteer intention with regard to events relevant to the current volunteer experience.

Based upon the theories and literature above, the following research question is advanced.

Research Question: How does the relative contribution of three foci of identification (i.e., sport, community, and volunteering) and volunteer satisfaction related to volunteer intention for four different opportunities (i.e., SOW, WOG, DSO, and GV) differ between male and female volunteers?

Method

Participants and Procedure

The study’s participants were those who volunteered at the pre‐games of the Special Olympics World Winter Games. The Special Olympics World Games, held every two years, is the biggest event for individuals with intellectual disabilities. In 2013, the tenth such event will be hosted by the city of Pyeongchang, South Korea, which is the host city for the 2018 Winter Olympic Games. To prepare for the event, the organizing committee hosted the pre‐games in February 2012 over three days, where 313 athletes and coaches from 9 different countries and 469 volunteers participated.

After obtaining permission from the organizing committee, data on volunteers staying in two different accommodation centers were collected. At dinnertime, the survey questionnaire was distributed, 255 in total, and 248 were found to be usable for the further analysis. Among the 248 respondents, 105 (42.3%) were male and 143 (57.7%) were female. The ages of the respondents ranged from 18 to 70 years, but about 91% of the respondents were aged between 19 and 26 years; 226 respondents (91.5%) were college or graduate students.

Instrument

The survey questionnaire included questions asking demographic information and items on identification with sport, community, and volunteering, volunteer satisfaction, and volunteer intentions with regard to SOW, WOG, DSO, and GV. Since the first language of the study participants is Korean, translation/back‐translation technique was adapted. Identification with sport (3 items) and with community (3 items) were measured using items from the Points of Attachment Index (PAI, Robinson & Trail, 2005; Trail, Robinson, Dick, & Gillentine, 2003). The PAI was developed to measure seven facets of sport fan identity (team, sport, university, player, coach, level of sport, and community). Among these facets, items to measure identification with sport and community were used. Identification with volunteering was measured using four items used in Kim and Trail (2007). Kim and Trail modified Callero, Howard, and Piliavin’s (1987) blood donors’ role identification items to measure volunteer identification. To measure overall satisfaction with the volunteer experience, a single item measuring volunteer satisfaction was used. Volunteering intentions were measured in two different ways. To measure volunteer intentions for three specific events (i.e., SOW, WOG, and DSO), a single item measure was used to ask about volunteering intentions for each event. To measure GV intentions, the three items of Kim and Trail (2007) were used. All items except demographic information were measured based on a seven‐point Likert‐type scale.

Analysis

Preliminary analyses including frequencies, mean, and standard deviations and various validity and reliability tests were conducted using PASW Statistics 18.0 and AMOS 18.0 program. To confirm the reliability and validity of scales, confirmatory factor analyses (CFA) on the total sample, male sample, and female sample were performed along with internal consistency coefficients (Cronbach’s alpha), Average Variance Extracted (AVE), and interfactor correlations. To test the model fit in the CFA, the chi‐square per degree of freedom ratio (x2/df), Comparative Fit Index (CFI), and Root Mean Square Error of Approximation (RMSEA) were used.

For the main study, first, the three identifications, volunteer satisfaction, and four different intentions were compared between male and female volunteers using t‐tests. Then, four hierarchical regression analyses with two different gender samples (a total of eight regression analyses) were conducted to evaluate which factors (i.e., identification with sport, community, and volunteering and volunteer satisfaction) predicted different volunteering intentions (i.e., volunteering intentions for SOW, WOG, DSO, and GV). Three different types of identification were entered in the first step, and volunteer satisfaction was entered in the second step. The main purpose of this study is to explore the gender differences through the regression analysis results; thus, multiple hierarchical regression analyses seemed more useful than multivariate multiple regression analysis. However, the significant alpha‐level was altered from the conventionally‐used alpha level of .05 to .01 to minimize the issue related to alpha level inflation.

Results

Reliability and Validity Tests

According the results of the CFA on the total sample including men and women, all fit indices (x2/df = 126.647/59 = 2.147, CFI = .969, RMSEA = .068) indicated the close fit between the data and the model (Browne & Cudeck, 1992; Byrne, 1989; Schumacker & Lomax, 1996). Each loading value with its latent variable was greater than .707, except for two items (Anderson & Gerbing, 1988). Although the loadings of a sport identification item (.693) and a community identification item (.675) were slightly lower than .707, both items were theoretically necessary to measure identification with the sport and community respectively. Thus, both items were included in further analysis. All AVE values exceeded .50 (Bagozzi & Yi, 1988; Fornell & Larker, 1981), and Cronbach’s alpha scores were between .840 and .922. Interfactor correlations among all seven variables were between .093 and .767. The results of the CFA on the male sample (x2/df = 91.606/59 = 1.553, CFI = .965, RMSEA = .073) and on the female sample (x2/df = 103.677/ 59 = 1.757, CFI = .965, RMSEA = .073) showed good fit as well. All loading values were greater than .707 (Anderson & Gerbing, 1988) except for one item in each sample, one sport identification item in the male sample (.672), and one community identification item in the female sample (.627). All AVE values exceeded .50 in both samples, and Cronbach’s alpha scores were between .843 and .929 in the male sample and between .842 and .916 in the female sample. Interfactor correlations among all seven variables were between .088 and .828 in the male sample and between .011 and .725 in the female sample. All these values indicate good reliability and validity.

Comparison between Male and Female Volunteers

All the variables used in this study were compared between males and females. Identification with sport (t(246) = 1.54, p = .125) and volunteering (t(246) = ‐.88, p = .379) were not significantly different between men (M = 4.61, SD = 1.22; M = 5.37, SD = 1.09, respectively) and women (M = 4.37, SD = 1.20; M = 5.49, SD = 1.14, respectively), but identification with community (t(246) = 2.353, p < .05) and volunteer satisfaction (t(246) = 7.192, p < .001) were significantly different between men (M= 4.04, SD = 1.53; M = 4.56, SD = 1.59, respectively) and women (M= 3.58, SD = 1.50; M = 3.10, SD = 1.56, respectively). While volunteering intentions for SOW (t(245) = ‐2.21, p < .05) were significantly different between men (M = 4.55, SD = 1.70) and women (M = 5.04, SD = 1.75), volunteering intentions for WOG (t(245) = ‐1.82, p = .07), DSOG (t(245) = ‐1.08, p = .281), and GV (t(245) = ‐1.40, p = .164) were not significantly different between men (M = 4.96, SD = 1.71; M = 4.89, SD = 1.65; M = 4.80, SD = 1.53, respectively) and women (M = 5.04, SD = 1.75; M = 5.11, SD = 1.62; M = 5.07, SD = 1.47, respectively).

Regression Analyses

In the regression analyses with two different gender samples, possible multicollinearity problems were examined. The variance inflation factors (VIF) ranged from 1.05 to 1.52 and tolerance levels were from .77 to .95, which shows that no multicollinearity problems existed (Tabachnick & Fidell, 1989).

For volunteer intentions for SOW (Table 1), the hierarchical regression analysis of the male sample showed that none of the identifications predicted SOW at the .01 level (F (3, 101) = 3.493, p = .018) and volunteer satisfaction entered in the second step did not contribute in explaining SOW (F (4, 100) = 2.598, p = .041). However, in the female sample, the model in the first step explained 9.3% of the variance in SOW (F (3, 138) = 4.696, p < .01, R2 = .093) but only identification with volunteering was significantly related to SOW (R2 = .224, p < .01). The second step explained an additional 6.8% of the variance in SOW (F (4, 137) = 6.564, p < .001, R2 = .161). Volunteer satisfaction was significantly related to SOW (β = .268, p < .01) but identification with volunteering did not predict SOW at the .01 level.

Summary of Hierarchical Regression Analysis for Variables Predicting Volunteering Intentions for 2013 Special Olympic World Winter Games(N=105)

For volunteer intentions for WOG (Table 2), the three identifications in the male sample explained 11.6% of the variance in WOG (F (3, 101) = 4.396, p < .01, R2 = .116) and only identification with volunteering was significantly related to WOG (β = .277, p < .01). After volunteer satisfaction was entered in the second step, the model explained 1% of the additional variance in WOG (F (4, 100) = 3.613, p < .01, R2 = .126) and only identification with volunteering was significantly related to WOG (β = .273, p < .01) as well. In the female sample, the model in the first step explained 21.2% of the variance in WOG (F (3, 138) = 12.344, p < .001, R2 = .212) and identifications with sport (β = .363, p < .001), and volunteering (β = .249, p < .01) were significantly related to WOG. After volunteer satisfaction was entered, the model explained an additional 1.1% of the variance in WOG (F (4, 137) = 9.837, p < .001, R2 = .223). However, volunteer satisfaction did not predict WOG while identifications with sport (β = .377, p < .001) and volunteering (β = .236, p < .01) did.

Summary of Hierarchical Regression Analysis for Variables Predicting Volunteering Intentions for 2018 Winter Olympic Games

For volunteer intentions for DSO (Table 3), the model in the first step explained 11.6% of the variance in DSO (F (3, 101) = 4.417, p < .01, R2 = .116) but only identification with volunteering predicted DSO at the .01 level (β = .271, p < .01). After volunteer satisfaction was entered in the second step, the model did not predict DSO (F (4, 100) = 3.478, p = .011). However, in the female sample, the model in the first step explained 19.5% of the variance in DSO (F (3, 138) = 11.163, p < .01, R2 = .195) and identification with volunteering was significantly related to DSO (β = .354, p < .001). The model in the second step explained an additional 6.5% of the variance in DSO (F (4, 137) = 12.047, p < .001, R2 = .260). Volunteer satisfaction (β = .262, p < .01) was significantly related to DSO as well as identification with volunteering (β = .324, p < .001).

Summary of Hierarchical Regression Analysis for Variables Predicting Volunteering Intentions for Domestic Special Olympic Games

For intentions for GV (Table 4), the model in the first step explained 25% of the variance in GV (F (3, 101) = 11.195, p < .001, R2 = .250) and identifications with community (β = .289, p < .01) and volunteering (β = .335, p < .001) predicted GV in the male sample. The model in the second step explained no additional variance in GV. In the female sample, the model in the first step explained 41.2% of the variance in GV (F (3, 138) = 32.194, p < .001, R2 = .412) and only identification with volunteering was significantly related to GV (β = .567, p < .001). In the second step, the model explained an additional 1% of the variance in GV (F (4, 137) = 25.005, p < .001, R2 = .422) and only identification with volunteering predicted GV (β = .555, p < .001).

Summary of Hierarchical Regression Analysis for Variables Predicting Intentions for General Volunteering

Discussion

This study was conducted on a sample of men and women volunteering at the pre‐games of the Special Olympics World Winter Games. The host city was Pyeongchang, South Korea, which is the host city for the 2013 Special Olympics World Winter Games and the 2018 Winter Olympic Games. The pre‐games were the test stage for both the Special Olympics World Winter Games and the Winter Olympic Games organizing committees as well as for Pyeongchang city and Kangwon province, which are hosting these two mega international events. Thus, the participants in this study are the perfect sample for further investigation of volunteering intentions based on the different foci of identification and volunteer satisfaction. With the male‐only and female‐only samples, this study investigated in detail how three different foci of identification (sport, community, and volunteering) and volunteer satisfaction in the pre‐games of the Special Olympics World Winter Games contribute to four different types of volunteering intentions (SOW, WOG, DSO, and GV).

The results of the four sets of regression analyses with the male and female volunteer samples (totally, eight regression analyses) seem somewhat complicated. However, the results do show clear trends. First, regardless of gender and future volunteer opportunities, identification with volunteering was a critical predictor of future volunteering intentions, except in one case, men for volunteering intentions for SOW. Smith (1981) insists that absolute altruism is not necessary in volunteerism and recent research on volunteerism has focused on factors beyond altruism. However, altruism or helping motives cannot be overlooked in understanding volunteer behaviors. For instance, individuals who are interested in the events could be involved in different ways (e.g., spectators); thus, identification with volunteering should be a critical factor in volunteering. Piliavin and his colleagues have studied volunteer role identification with various volunteer samples and found that volunteer role identification was a strong predictor of future volunteering intentions (Charng, Piliavin, & Callero, 1988; Grube & Piliavin, 2000; Lee et al., 1999). Kim and Trail (2007) found that volunteer identification was strongly related to volunteering intentions with regard to university and local events. The results of this study on volunteer identification are in line with these previous studies.

Second, beyond identification with volunteering, different identifications influence future volunteering intentions differently in each gender sample. Identification with community was a significant predictor for intentions for GV, only in the male volunteer sample, while identification with sport was the significant factor influencing intentions for WOG, only in the female volunteer sample. Previous research on identification with community (i.e., sense of community) has shown that community identification influences involvement in local organizations and events (Wandersman & Florin, 2000) through volunteering (Prezza, Amici, Roberti, & Tedeschi, 2001). The close relationship between identification with sport and volunteering intentions for sporting events has been well documented (Kim, 2012; Kim & Trail, 2007). However, it is not easy to understand why the significant relationship between identification with community and intentions for GV was found only in the male sample and that between identification with sport and volunteering intentions for WOG was seen only in the female sample. In this study, while men showed higher levels of identification with community, women showed higher levels of intentions for GV, although the difference was not statistically meaningful. In addition, the levels of identification with sport and volunteering intentions for WOG were not significantly different for men and women. That is, it was difficult to conclude why different identifications influence volunteering intentions differently for men and women.

The most interesting finding of this study is that volunteer satisfaction is a very critical predictor for women only. While volunteer satisfaction did not play a significant role to explain volunteering intentions in the male samples, volunteer satisfaction was a significant predictor for intentions for SOW and DSO in the female samples. Previous studies have found that volunteer satisfaction predicts future volunteering behaviors and intentions (Finkelstein, 2008; Vecina et al., 2012). Because most people in South Korea were not yet familiar with the Special Olympics, the pre‐games of the Special Olympics might be the first experience of Special Olympics for most of the volunteers. Thus, the experience in the pre‐games would influence future volunteering intentions with regard to the Special Olympics, at both domestic and international levels (i.e., SOW and DSO). However, in this study, the influences of volunteer satisfaction on future volunteering intentions for similar types of events were shown only in the female samples. This gender difference can be presumed from the results obtained by Miller and Wheeler (1992). In their studies, women showed a greater intention to leave than men; however, when job satisfaction was controlled, women’s intention to leave was not higher than men’s. That is, job satisfaction was a critical factor for women’s turnover or retention. Miller and Wheeler focused on paid employees while the sample of the current study consisted of volunteers. However, both studies showed that satisfaction with work experiences (i.e., job satisfaction in Miller & Wheeler and volunteer satisfaction in this study) was more critical for women than men.

Managerial Implications and Future Directions

The results of this study tell us that volunteers possess various types of volunteer identification that predict future volunteering intentions. However, beyond identification with volunteering, other identifications differently influence men and women’s future intentions with regard to various volunteer opportunities. Why did identification with sport matter only for women’s volunteering intentions with regard to WOG and identification with community matter only for men’s intentions for GV? Future studies should answer questions about the complicated relationships among gender, different foci of identification, and future intentions with regard to various volunteer opportunities. When we recognize how female volunteers become psychologically attached to a situation or group, we will be able to understand female volunteers and their volunteering intentions better and suggest recruiting approaches and managerial processes well‐suited for them.

Further, this study showed that volunteer satisfaction significantly predicted women’s volunteer intentions with regard to not WOG and GV but SOW and DSO. That is, women review similar volunteering experiences they have had when they decide to volunteer in the future. This result suggests that if volunteer organizations want to increase the number of female volunteers or retain the volunteering services of women, they should help women enjoy their current volunteer experiences. However, which aspects of volunteer experiences matters for the future volunteering intentions of women were not specifically revealed in this study due to a single‐item satisfaction measure. Thus, future studies using a multidimensional measure of volunteer satisfaction should be conducted to specifically explore satisfaction in the various aspects of volunteer experiences and their relationships with women’s intentions for future volunteering. In the case of paid employees, Miller and Wheeler (1992) found that satisfaction with meaningful work and promotion opportunities were critical with regard to women’s intentions to stay at or leave their jobs. While volunteers do not generally get promotion opportunities, meaningful work might be relevant to volunteers’ satisfaction. Therefore, volunteer organizations should try to provide volunteer tasks appropriate to female volunteers’ knowledge and skills. However, most volunteer tasks are simple or repetitive in event settings; thus, it is not easy for the organization to provide quality and meaningful work for all volunteers. Still, if the organization tries to explain how these simple and repetitive volunteer tasks can help the event or the beneficiary, female volunteers will be able to perceive the volunteer tasks as more meaningful work.

While previous research on gender differences in volunteering has focused on volunteer motivation or volunteer types, this study has tried to explore gender differences in volunteering based on identification and satisfaction, opening up a new area in volunteer and gender research and providing useful information to volunteer managers. However, this study is probably a first study concentrating on different foci of identification and volunteer satisfaction in terms of predicting volunteering intentions of men and women. Thus, in order to explore the uniqueness of female volunteers and confirm the finding of this study, numerous studies using these variables should be followed. Specifically, this study was conducted on volunteers at an international event; thus, the results cannot be generalized to other volunteers. More studies should be conducted on different sample groups and long‐term volunteers as well.

Acknowledgments

* This research was supported by the College of Education, Korea University in 2012.

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Table 1

Summary of Hierarchical Regression Analysis for Variables Predicting Volunteering Intentions for 2013 Special Olympic World Winter Games(N=105)

Gender Variables Model 1 Model 2
B SE B β B SE B β
Male
(n=105)		 ID w. Sport -.015 .145 -.011 -.015 .146 -.011
ID w. Community .231 .117 .208 .224 .130 .202
ID w. Volunteering .296 .152 .190 .295 .153 .189
Volunteer Satisfaction .015 .115 .014
R2 .094 .094
F for changes in R2 3.493* .016
Female
(n=143)		 ID w. Sport .183 .134 .126 .236 .131 .162
ID w. Community .062 .105 .053 -.003 .104 -.002
ID w. Volunteering .342 .128 .224** .294 .125 .192**
Volunteer Satisfaction .298 .089 .268
R2 .093 .161
F for changes in R2 4.696** 11.133**

Table 2

Summary of Hierarchical Regression Analysis for Variables Predicting Volunteering Intentions for 2018 Winter Olympic Games

Gender Variables Model 1 Model 2
B SE B β B SE B β
Male
(n=105)		 ID w. Sport -.032 .144 -.023 -.031 .144 -.022
ID w. Community .175 .116 .157 .113 .129 .102
ID w. Volunteering .434 .151 .277** .428 .151 .273**
Volunteer Satisfaction .126 .114 .118
R2 .116 .126
F for changes in R2 4.396** 1.231
Female
(n=143)		 ID w. Sport .493 .117 .363** .513 .117 .377**
ID w. Community -.082 .092 -.076 -.107 .093 -.099
ID w. Volunteering .355 .112 .249** .337 .112 .236**
Volunteer Satisfaction .110
R2 .212 .223
F for changes in R2 12.344** 2.036

Table 3

Summary of Hierarchical Regression Analysis for Variables Predicting Volunteering Intentions for Domestic Special Olympic Games

Gender Variables Model 1 Model 2
B SE B β B SE B β
Male
(n=105)		 ID w. Sport .023 .139 .017 .023 .139 .017
ID w. Community .158 .112 .147 .113 .124 .105
ID w. Volunteering .410 .146 .271** .405 .146 .268**
Volunteer Satisfaction .092 .110 .089
R2 .116 .122
F for changes in R2 4.417** .699
Female
(n=143)		 ID w. Sport .219 .117 .162 .266 .114 .197
ID w. Community .053 .092 .049 -.006 .090 -.005
ID w. Volunteering .503 .112 .354** .460 .109 .324**
Volunteer Satisfaction .270 .078 .262**
R2 .195 .260
F for changes in R2 11.163** 12.026**

Table 4

Summary of Hierarchical Regression Analysis for Variables Predicting Intentions for General Volunteering

Gender Variables Model 1 Model 2
B SE B β B SE B β
Male
(n=105)		 ID w. Sport .039 .119 .031 .039 .120 .031
ID w. Community .288 .096 .289** .291 .107 .292**
ID w. Volunteering .470 .124 .335** .470 .125 .335**
Volunteer Satisfaction -.006 .094 -.006
R2 .250 .250
F for changes in R2 11.195** .004
Female
(n=143)		 ID w. Sport .179 .091 .146 .196 .091 .161
ID w. Community .068 .071 .070 .047 .072 .048*
ID w. Volunteering .729 .087 .567** .713 .087 .555
Volunteer Satisfaction .097 .062 .104**
R2 .412 .422
F for changes in R2 32.194** 2.434