Female Leadership in Malaysia: Issues and Challenges

Introduction

Women were once considered fit to only manage the household. Now, in line with the development of women’s capabilities in both the education and economic sectors, they have successfully made great strides in the employment sector (Hamzah, Hamzah, Othman, & Devi, 2016). The number of highly educated and skilled women has increased globally (Koburtay & Syed, 2019; United Nations, 2017). This has led to an increase in the number of women in the workplace, across all levels, even though the unemployment rate among female graduates still remains high (Aun, 2020). Working women receive lower salaries than their male counterparts for the same work. The number of women in leadership positions is low (Hamzah et al., 2016; Hryniewicz & Vianna, 2018). Eagly and Karau (2002) and Jeong and Harrison (2017) found that the number of women at the decision-making level was low and identified the barriers women encounter in seeking to hold such high positions. Such barriers are usually known as gender stereotyping.

Prejudice against women leaders arises when they are judged based on gender beliefs and social perceptions rather than on their skills and abilities (Koenig, Eagly, Mitchell, & Ristikari, 2011). The public belief and faith that a leader should have certain traits or attributes leads to gender stereotypes with respect to leadership, where masculine traits are considered more suitable for a leader (Carli & Eagly, 2016; Eagly, 1987; Lyness & Heilman, 2006).

Schein (1973) examined gender stereotypes among middle-class leaders and showed that faith and belief in the “think manager–think male” ideology were strong. Schein (1973, 1975) and Rhee and Sigler (2015) reported that both male and female managers agreed that the characteristics of a successful manager were more likely to be exhibited by men. Later, Schein, Mueller, Lituchy, and Liu (1996) examined management students of different genders from China and Japan and found that the ideology of “think manager–think male” occurred in both countries. All male and female students from both countries associated successful leaders with masculine characteristics, attitudes, and behaviors (Schein et al., 1996). They compared their results with those of studies conducted in the US, the UK, and Germany using the same instruments, methods, and samples and found that the “think manager–think male” ideology prevails globally. Some theoretical bases and the prevalence of some cultures that value gender stereotyping further support these scholarly arguments (Priyashantha, De Alwis, & Welmilla, 2021). Meanwhile, Vo (2017) in his study also found that the mindset of “think manager–think male” still exists among the employees of the Asian Institute of Technology in Thailand. Further revealed that female participants in this study viewed both women and men were quite similar to successful managers while male participants perceived women were different from successful managers.

Methods

This study was conducted on a group of female civil servants in top management positions by combining qualitative and quantitative methods as a sequential study design. The qualitative study began through interviews to identify the issues and challenges faced by female decision-makers serving in the Malaysian public sector. Five leadership experts and policymakers were interviewed and thematic analysis was conducted using ATLAS.ti software. This research tool was used for the process of coding and analyzing the data transcripts to identify themes from the participants' point of view. These findings can answer the first objective of this study, which is to identify the construct/theme of issues and challenges faced by female civil servants as decision-makers in the Malaysian public sector.

The quantitative method involved the use of questionnaires to obtain answers in order to achieve the first objective of this study. It also aimed to clarify the qualitative findings. Questionnaire items were constructed and tested for validity and reliability using the Rasch model. The results showed that the value of the accepted reliability index was good (0.99). Based on Bond and Fox (2015), a reliability index value of above 0.70 is considered a good value. This instrument underwent multiple validations such as content and construct validity through the Rasch model. The pilot studies showed that it had good psychometric properties.

The respondents were a group of female civil servants in top management positions (Grade 48 and above) across 23 ministries in the Federal Territory of Putrajaya, Malaysia. A total of 456 respondents from among 2002 female civil servants with Grade 48 ranks and above constituted the sample through a simple random sampling method. The sample size was determined based on Krejcie and Morgan’s Table (1970). The location, that is, the Federal Administrative Center was chosen as it has the largest population of female civil servants (Public Service Department, 2020). The data obtained were analyzed descriptively using SPSS Version 25.0.

Two sets of research instruments were used. First, semi-structured interviews were conducted to gather qualitative findings. Second, a questionnaire was prepared in order to gather quantitative data. To ensure that both instruments were valid and reliable, face and content validation was performed by 10 experts. Then, a total of 10 experts were appointed consisting of language, professional and industry experts. In order to meet face validity, a total of two experts were appointed from the fields of Malay and English. While for content validity, a total of eight professional experts have been appointed consisting of four leadership experts and four psychometric experts. Professional experts are selected based on the criteria of having expertise in the field and the highest academic qualification (Doctor of Philosophy), having served (university/ school/ department), and having experience in the field for more than 15 years. For the qualitative method, external validation was conducted through “expert checking,” where the interview protocol was analyzed by experts to examine the suitability of the questions. The quantitative and qualitative data were triangulated to ensure clear findings (Merriam, 1998). Interview data were validated by the participants through “member checking” in order to ensure that the participants agreed that the analysis was performed accurately. While data reliability is established through a process that is transparent and “rigorous” so that item reporting accurately measures the female leadership instrument developed.

Finally, based on the analysis, the Cronbach’s alpha (reliability) of the instrument is 0.98, meaning the instrument is reliable and can be used. The reliability result for all items exceeds Cronbach's alpha value ranging from 0.80 to 0.98. This reliability value has met the value suggested by Pallant (2008) who states that a good measuring tool has a reliability coefficient value of more than 0.60.

Results

RQ2 What are the levels of issues and challenges faced by female decision-makers in Malaysia?

The data analysis for this research question was a continuation of that for RQ1. The findings for RQ2 show that the issues and challenges that women face in holding positions at the decision-making level are moderately high. Table 1 presents this. Gender stereotypes and male management models had medium to high mean scores, whereas the social role dimension had a medium low mean score. The interpretation of the mean score to identify this level is made based on the interpretation table of Tajolosa (2020), which is equivalent to a mean score of 1.00–1.50 (Low); 1.51–2.50 (Medium Low); 2.51–3.50 (Medium High); and 3.51–4.00 (High). Thus, assumptions regarding the opportunity of women to hold positions at the decision-making level are still moderate. Table 1 shows that female civil servants in Malaysia face various obstacles when they seek to position themselves as decision-making leaders in the public sector in Malaysia.

Table 1

Women’s Issues and Challenges

These findings support studies like Lyness and Heilman (2006) and Carli and Eagly (2016), who argued that a position as a decision maker is appropriate for a man’s character (referring to the male management model). Female workers tend to treat their families as their main priority. Asian women tend to focus on their families because of the cultural norm that expects them to behave (Cho et al., 2017b; Kim, 2013; Ramli & Hassan, 2009). The issues and challenges that women as decision-makers face have different degrees of intensity. Table 2 shows the details of several factors that prevent women from enjoying leadership roles.

Table 2

Details of issues and challenges

Table 2 shows that female employees did not agree with Items 4–10. As many as 84.4% of female employees disagreed with Item 4, “Women are unable to influence decision-makers.” They considered themselves capable of performing tasks and acting as decision-makers. Further, 59.8% did not agree with Item 5, “The stereotypical view that women are not brave enough to take risks prevents them from accessing opportunities to occupy higher positions.” This means that the assumption that women are not brave and avoid taking risks, consequently losing out on opportunities to hold high positions, is not true.

These findings contradict those of previous studies like Croson and Gneezy (2009) and Eckel and Grossman (2003) who stated that women are “risk-averse.” However, our findings are in line with the study conducted by Maxfield, Shapiro, Gupta, and Hass (2010) on 600 female managers who were shown to be risk-takers. Item 5 is related to Items 1, 2, and 3. Women are not given the opportunity to hold high positions not because they do not dare to take risks, but because of the assumption that male leaders are better than female ones (Item 1) and the persistence of gender discrimination has always resulted in fewer women being selected as decision-makers. Such gender stereotypes will remain in societies that continue to adhere to the notion that only a man or a person with masculine traits can be a good leader (Carli & Eagly, 2016; Lyness & Heilman, 2006). This finding is also in line with Abdallah and Jibai (2020) who showed that one of the reasons for the small number of women at the leadership level is the stereotypes against women and the lack of implementation of gender equality within organizations (Cullen & Murphy, 2018).

The fact that women do not receive enough organizational support for their career advancement (Item 3) also prevents them from becoming leaders. As Table 2 shows, 54% of the respondents agreed with Item 3, “Women leaders do not get enough support from their organizations toward career development.” Singh-Manoux, Guéguen, Ferrie, Shipley, Martikainen, Bonenfant, Goldberg, and Marmot (2008) and Billing (2011) showed that women do not have sufficient experience in leadership roles and this is a causal factor for the small number of women in leadership positions. This occurs when there are only a handful of top leaders who prioritize gender in their recruitment and promotion processes (Peterle & Rau, 2017; Powell, Butterfield, & Parent, 2002; Régner, Thinus-Blanc, Netter, Schmader, & Huguet, 2019). Such situations prevent women from pursuing their careers. Women are not given opportunities to develop their careers because the management treats certain positions as exclusive to men (Burgess & Tharenou, 2002; Chin, 2018).

As many as 86.6% of the respondents disagreed with Item 10, “Women are not resilient enough to be leaders,” implying that women are competent and capable of being leaders. Only a few women (under 50%) agreed to Item 6 “Not many women are interested in taking up decision-making roles.” This shows that, although women believe that they are resilient, they are not entirely interested in becoming leaders when given the opportunity to do so. Chen and Houser (2017) noted that a woman’s ability or capability to lead will increase if they are willing and ready to lead. Thus, if women themselves do not want to be leaders, then their leadership abilities cannot be assessed and they will continue to be considered minorities in leadership positions. Some senior executives and top management personnel have claimed that women have no desire to excel in their current job positions. This might stem from women not having high internal motivation to position themselves as organizational leaders (Elmuti, Jia, & Davis, 2009).

A total of 56.6% disagreed with Item 7, “Women are more concerned about child-bearing rather than pursuing their careers.” This means that women think about raising their children more than career advancement. This statement was supported by Item 8, “Women are not willing to spend more time at the office” which shows that women workers in Malaysia are not willing to work overtime (57.4%). Although most female civil servants stated that they were willing to spend time in the office, there were still a handful who were not willing to work overtime. This shows that there are still women who are more concerned with prioritizing their families. This statement also aligns with the percentage of women who agreed with Item 7 (43.4%), suggesting that they are more concerned with the task of raising their children than thinking about their career advancement. Zaimah et al. (2013) found that the work-life balance factor, especially among Malaysian women, is very important. Although male and female Malaysian citizens prioritize family over career, the latter are more likely to choose a more balanced lifestyle rather than prioritize career advancement alone (Hamzah, 2017; Marican et al., 2009). Support from the family is not a barrier to career advancement for female civil servants. This is evident in the fact that 60.1% disagreed with Item 9, “The lack of family support forces women to hesitate to expand their careers.” These findings show that family support is very important for women in high positions. Hamzah, Karjo, and Basiron (2014) found that women who are successful in their careers relied on the support of individuals close to them.

Some respondents complained that they had to work harder than men to prove themselves as capable of being leaders (Item 11). The lack of guidance from superiors also resulted in fewer women in the leadership level (item 12). Thus, a female leader who aspires to hold a high or decision-making position often needs to work harder because support and guidance from the top is hard to come by. Evans (2014) showed that the lack of guidance from superiors was one of the factors preventing women from being selected as leaders. Chuang (2019) noted that by providing training and guidance to employees regardless of their gender, their skills and abilities in management and leadership can be enhanced deeply. As many as 84% of the respondents in this study agreed with Item 13, “Women leaders are just as good as (or better than) men when it comes to being empathetic.”

This statement is very relevant to the study of female leadership, which treats empathy as synonymous with women and considers it a “superpower” that helps women leaders exercise effective leadership (Biçer, 2020; Kock, Mayfield, Mayfield, Sexton, & De La Garza, 2019). Therefore, female managers are often associated with empathy.

Conclusions

Issues and challenges faced by female decision-makers among civil servants in Malaysia remain major obstacles to increasing the number of women holding top-post positions. The three main obstacles are gender stereotypes, social roles, and male management models. Therefore, in order to empower women and to increase their numbers in top positions, the responsible parties such as the Ministry of Women, Family and Community Development, Malaysia, need to think of solutions to tackle these issues and challenges.

Women must be trained and guided so that they can overcome all issues and challenges. They must believe in themselves and always think that they are smart and capable of managing and balancing their lives. They should not succumb to cultural beliefs that consider themselves weak. Women should not avoid taking risks or making important decisions. To empower women, several suggestions are proposed by this study. One of the proposals is to implement mentoring and coaching programs so that self-efficacy, self-confidence, and self-awareness among female civil servants can be increased. Every newly appointed female civil servant should undergo skills training that aims to shape the character of a leader. Such continuous effort can build leadership traits among female civil servants and give them confidence to take up positions as decision-makers.

The findings of this study have implications for the Ministry of Women, Family and Community Development, so that they can take up a more aggressive role toward developing the community for common prosperity. There is a need to increase the number of female employees in top management across all government sectors in Malaysia so that the administrative ecosystem at that level is more balanced. Policies and strategies, including the establishment of evaluation criteria for the selection of new leaders and annual performance evaluations, must be reviewed so that there is no discrimination on the ground of gender. This means that the choice and criteria for appointment as a decision maker is not the result of gender stereotypes, but rather depends on the leadership skills of the civil servant in question.

Acknowledgments

This research was funded by Tun Fatimah Hashim Women's Leadership Centre, UKM (Grant No.: PKW-2019-005). We also would like to thank the Ministry of Women, Family, and Community Development and Faculty of Education, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia for supporting the research.

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